LANGUAGE, HISTORY AND CULTURE

Language, History, & Culture

RCPS Language, History & Culture

"FARSI" or "PERSIAN"? (In English) By Pejman Akbarzadeh
Persian Handbook

A Timeline of Iranian History in the Twentieth Century

1795-1925: Qajar kings, ruling Iran in alliance with Shi'i clerics since, continue their despotic rule, but are weakened under a modernization drive led by European-educated intellectuals.

1903: Oil is discovered in Iran; British Petroleum begins to exploit it.

1905-1911: Iran's Constitutional Revolution limits the historically near-absolute power of Iranian monarchy; Iran 's first constitution is a translation of the Belgian constitution of 1831.

1907: Nineteenth-century superpowers Russia and England divide Iran into two spheres of influence.

1915-1917: Russia and England occupy western and southern Iran during WWI.

1917: The Russian revolution mobilizes Iranian intellectuals; first leftist and communist parties are formed.

1921-25: Reza Khan, an army officer, rises through the ranks eventually to abolish the Qajar dynasty and become king; the new dynasty is called Pahlavi.

1925-1941: Reza Shah's reforms include change in the dress code, unveiling of women, establishment of both the army and the system of higher education; he also tames Iran's parliament and disregards the constitution.

1930s: Reza Shah's nationalist policies make him a natural ally of Hitler; he dreams of an "Aryan" nation.

1939-45: WWII; the allied forces occupy Iran in 1941; Reza Shah abdicates and is sent to exile.

1941: Reza Shah's European-educated son, Mohammad Reza, becomes Shah at 22; he rules for 37 years.

1941-53: period of freedom and parliamentary supremacy; political parties are formed; a nationalist movement initiates the oil nationalization drive.

1950-53: Premier Mosaddeq leads Iran's oil nationalization drive against Britain; Iran is blockaded; the Shah and Mosaddeq have a fall-out over oil nationalization policy and the powers of the monarchy; US teams up with Britain and the Shah to oust Mosaddeq in a coup d'etat in August 1953.

1957: The CIA assists the Shah in establishing the SAVAK, a notorious secret police organization; the political situation deteriorates.

1960-63: The Kennedy administration tries to persuade the Shah to initiate a series of reform projects, particularly a land redistribution program; rampant Westernization begins.

1963: The Ayatollah Khomeini leads a bloody and unsuccessful revolt against the Shah's "reforms."

1968-70: Iran's writers try to form a Writers Association; the government crushes the movement after two years.

1963-77: Copying his father, the Shah succeeds in reducing the parliament to a rubber-stamp institution; all opposition is stifled.

1970: Two guerrilla movements are formed in Iran, the Fadaiyan-e Khalq inspired by Marxism, the Mojahedin-e Khalq inspired by an egalitarian interpretation of Islam.

1973: The quadrupling of oil prices leads to huge revenues for Iran; the Shah initiates a series of grandiose projects which lead to huge economic and social dislocations and widespread discontent; at the same time, the Nixon administration allows massive export of weaponry into Iran.

1976: The election of Carter brings the issue of human rights to the forefront of American foreign policy; Iranian dissidents agitate against monarchy.

1977: The 10 nights of poetry reading highlights the intellectual opposition to censorship and surveillance; the monarchial regime tries to accommodate the protests.

1978-79: An anti-monarchial revolutionary coalition takes shape between the forces of religious right, the nationalists, and the left; the Ayatollah Khomeini emerges as the revolution's leader.

1979: The Pahlavi dynasty is toppled, Iranian monarchy comes to an end; an "Islamic Republic" takes its place.

1979-1981: Militant Islamic students occupy the American embassy in Tehran in response to the deposed Shah's trip to the US and in retaliation for the coup d'etat of 1953; relations between US and revolutionary Iran deteriorate.

1979-81: The revolution's leadership goes to the Shi'i clerics; the revolution assumes an increasingly "Islamic" cast.

1979- 1989: Over a million Iranians, mostly professionals, leave their homeland; various exile communities emerge in Western countries.

1980-88: The Iran-Iraq war, Iran's only major war of the century, erupts when Iraqi forces invade the southwestern parts of the country; it leaves over 500,000 Iranians dead and vast areas of the country in ruins, before ending inconclusively after eight years.

1981-88: The war allows the Islamic State to consolidate its power; the Islamic Republic systematically suppresses all the other partners in the revolutionary coalition.

1989: The Ayatollah Khomeini, charismatic leader of the Iranian revolution, dies; after a brief power struggle, Ali Khameneh'i is elevated to the position of spiritual leader.

1989-97: President Hashemi-Rafsanjani undertakes a reconstruction effort, but the human rights situation continues to deteriorate.

1997: In the seventh presidential election since the revolution, Iranians elect Mohammad Khatami, a moderate cleric, to presidency; he promises to expand freedoms and work to create a civil society; US expresses support, but sanctions against Iran remain in place.

1998: The Ministry of Information launches a campaign of terror against Iranian dissidents; this leads to a series of chain assassinations, where a number of writers and political activists are kidnapped and/or murdered.

2000: Tensions between the reformists led by the President and the conservatives under the command of "The Spiritual Leader" escalate, each side accusing the other of undermining the Islamic Republican state; the judiciary begins a campaign of intimidation against freedom of expression; many reformist journals are shut down.

2001: President Khatami is elected to a second term; clashes with the conservatives escalate, leaving the president incapable of carrying the reform agenda forward.

2005: In a presidential election marred by widespread manipulation, an ultra-conservative dark horse candidate by the name of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad replaces the reformist President Khatami.

2006-2009 - ....

 

Chronological History of Afghanistan

1878: Start of second Anglo-Afghan War. The British invade and the Afghans quickly put up a strong resistance.

1879: Sher Ali dies in Mazar-i-Shariff, and Amir Muhammad Yaqub Khan takes over until October 1879. Amir Muhammad Yaqub Khan gives up the following Afghan territories to the British: Kurram, Khyber, Michni, Pishin, and Sibi. Afghans lose these territories permanently.

1880: Battle of Maiwand. July 1880, Afghan woman named Malalai carries the Afghan flag forward after the soldiers carrying the flag were killed by the British. She becomes a heroine for her show of courage and valour. Abdur Rahman takes throne of Afghanistan as Amir.

The British, shortly after the accession of the new Amir, withdraw from Afghanistan, although they retain the right to handle Afghanistan's foreign relations. Abdur Rahman establishes fixed borders and he loses a lot of Afghan land. Nuristan converted to Islam.

1885: The Panjdeh Incident. Russian forces seize the Panjdeh Oasis, a piece of Afghan territory north of the Oxus River. Afghans tried to retake it, but was finally forced to allow the Russians to keep Panjdeh - Russians promised to honor Afghan territorial integrity in the future.

1893: The Durand line fixes borders of Afghanistan with British India, splitting Afghan tribal areas, leaving half of these Afghans in what is now Pakistan.

1895: Afghanistan's northern border is fixed and guaranteed by Russia.

1901: Abdur Rahman dies, his son Habibullah succeeds him. Slows steps toward modernization

1907: Russia and Great Britain sign the convention of St. Petersburg, in which Afghanistan is declared outside Russia's sphere of influence.

1918: Mahmud Tarzi (Afghan Intellectual) introduces modern journalism into Afghanistan with the creation of several newspapers.

1919: Habibullah is assassinated, and succeeded by his son Amanullah (The reform King).

The first museum in Afghanistan is instituted at Baghe Bala.

1921: Third Anglo-Afghan war. Once again, the British are defeated, and Afghanistan gains full control of her foreign affairs. Amanullah Khan initiates a series of ambitious efforts at social and political modernization.

1923: Amanullah Khan changes his title from Amir to Padshah (King).

1929: Amanullah Khan is overthrown by Habibullah Kalakani. After the fall of Amanullah Khan, Mahmud Tarzi seeks asylum in Turkey. The Rise and Fall of Habibullah Kalakani, popularly known as "Bache Saqao." Nadir Khan takes the throne; his tribal army loots government buildings and houses of wealthy citizens because the treasury was empty. Habibullah Kalakani, along with his supporters, and a few supporters of Amanullah Khan, are killed by Nadir Khan. Now Nadir Khan establishes full control.

1930: (May) Pro-Amanullah Khan uprising put down by Nadir Khan. Nadir Khan abolishes reforms set forth by Amanullah Khan to modernize Afghanistan.

1933: Nadir Khan assassinated by a college student, and his son, Zahir, inherits the throne. He rules until 1973. Zahir Shah's uncles serve as prime ministers and advisors until 1953.

Mahmud Tarzi dies in Turkey at the age of 68 with a heart full of sorrow and despair toward his country.

1934: The United States of America formally recognizes Afghanistan.

1938: Da Afghanistan Bank (State Bank of Afghanistan) is incorporated.

1939: Minor pro-Amanullah Khan uprising (January 15).

1940: Zahir Shah proclaims Afghanistan as neutral during WW2.

1947: Britain withdraws from India. Pakistan is carved out of Indian and Afghan lands.

1949: Afghanistan's Parliament denounces the Durand Treaty and refuses to recognize the Durand line as a legal boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Pashtuns in Pashtunistan (occupied Afghan land) proclaim an independent Pashtunistan, but their proclamation goes unacknowledged by the world community.

1953: Prince Mohammad Daoud becomes Prime Minister.

1954: The U.S. rejects Afghanistan's request to buy military equipment to modernize the army.

1955: Daoud turns to the Soviet Union (Russia) for military aid. The Pashtunistan (occupied Afghan land) issue flares up.

1956: Kruschev and Bulgaria agree to help Afghanistan. Close ties between Afghanistan and USSR.

1959: The Purdah is made optional, and women begin to enroll in the University which has become co-educational. Women begin to enter the workforce and the government.

1961: Pakistan and Afghanistan come close to war over Pashtunistan.

1963-1964: Zahir Shah demands Daoud's resignation. Dr. Mohammad Yusof becomes Prime Minister.

1965: The Afghan Communist Party was secretly formed in January. Babrak Karmal is one of the founders. In September, first nationwide elections under the new constitution. Karmal was elected to the Parliament, later instigates riots. Zahir and Yussof form second government.

1969: Second nationwide elections. Babrak and Hafizullah Amin are elected.

1972: Mohammad Moussa becomes Prime Minister.

1973: July 17: Zahir Shah is on vacation in Europe when his government is overthrown in a military coup headed by Daoud Khan and PDPA (Afghan Communist Party). Daoud Khan abolishes the monarchy, declares himself President--Republic of Afghanistan is established.

1974: UNESCO names Herat as one of the first cities to be designated as a part of the world's cultural heritage.

1975-1977: Daoud Khan presents a new constitution. Women's rights confirmed. Daoud starts to oust suspected opponents from his government.

1978: Bloody Communist coup: Daoud is killed, Taraki is named President, and Karmal becomes his deputy Prime Minister. Tensions rise. Mass arrests, tortures, and arrests takes place. Afghan flag is changed. Taraki signs treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union. June--Afghan guerrilla (Mujahideen) movement is born.

1978: Bloody Communist coup: Daoud is killed, Taraki is named President, and Karmal becomes his deputy Prime Minister. Tensions rise. Mass arrests, tortures, and arrests takes place. Afghan flag is changed. Taraki signs treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union. June--Afghan guerrilla (Mujahideen) movement is born.

1979: Mass killings. US ambassador killed. Taraki is killed and Hafizullah Amin takes the Presidency. Amin is executed, and he is replaced with Babrak Karmal. Soviet Union (Russia) invade in December.

1980: Dr. Najibullah is brought back from USSR to run the secret police.

1984: UN sends investigators to Afghanistan to examine reported human rights violations.

1986: Babrak Karmal is replaced by Dr. Najibullah.

1987: Najibullah proposes ceasefire, but the Mujahideen refuse to deal with a "puppet government." Mujahideen make great gains, defeat of Soviets eminent.

1988-1989: Peace accords signed in Geneva. Soviet Union defeated by Afghanistan, total withdrawal by the Soviets occurred on Feb. 15, 1989. Experts agree that at least 40,000-50,000 Soviets lost their lives in action, besides the wounded, suicides, and murders. Mujahideen continue to fight against Najibullah's regime. May--Afghan guerrillas elect Sibhhatullah Mojadidi as head of their government-in-exile.

1992-April 15: The Mujahideen take Kabul and liberate Afghanistan, Najibullah is protected by UN. The Mujahideen form an Islamic State--Islamic Jihad Council--elections. Iranian and Pakistani interference increases. Professor Burhannudin Rabbani is elected President.

1994: The Taliban militia are born, and advance rapidly against the Rabbani government.

Dostum and Hekmatyar continued to clash against Rabbani's government, and as a result Kabul is reduced to rubble.

1995: Massive gains by the Taliban. Increased Pakistani and Iranian interference.

1996: June--Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, head of Hezbi-Islami, having been eliminated as a military power, signs a peace pact with Rabbani, and returns to Kabul to rule as prime minister.

September 27--Taliban militia force President Rabbani and his government out of Kabul. After the capture of Kabul, the Taliban execute Najibullah. Alliance between Government, Hezbi Wahdat, and Dostum. Oppression of women by the Taliban women must be fully veiled, no longer allowed to work, go out alone, or even wear white socks. Men are forced to grow beards. Buzkashi, the Afghan national sport, is outlawed. Tensions rise as Afghan government accuse Pakistan of aiding the Taliban. Massive human rights violations by the Taliban.

1997: Mass graves of Taliban soldiers containing between 1,500 and 2,000 bodies are found. The men were believed to have been captured in May by general Abdul Malik during the Taliban's brief takeover of Mazar-i-Sharif.

1998: February--Earthquake strikes in northeastern Afghanistan, killing over 4,000 people, destroying villages, and leaving thousands of people homeless. August--Taliban finally capture Mazar-i-Sharif and massacre thousands of innocent civilians afterwards, mostly Hazaras.

August 20--United States launches cruise missles hitting Afghanistan's Khost region. US states its intent was to destroy so called terrorist bases/training facilities used by Osama bin Laden and his followers. Some Afghan civilians are also killed. September--Tensions rise between Iran and the Taliban. Iranians are angry about the killing of their diplomats and a journalist by the Taliban when they captured Mazar-i-Sharif. Soon they deploy 70,000 troops to carry out military exercises near the Afghan border. In the end, no fighting occurs between the Taliban and the Iranian army.

1999: February--Earthquake hits eastern Afghanistan, affecting over 30,000 people, and killing at least 60 to 70 people. September--The ex-king of Afghanistan, Mohammad Zahir Shah, calls for a grand assembly, or Loya Jirga to discuss ways of bringing peace to the country. The United Front soon welcomes the idea, but the Taliban ridicule Mohammad Zahir Shah's attempts at establishing peace. October--UN Security Council Resolution 1267 is adopted; sanctions against the Taliban on grounds that they offered sanctuary to Osama bin Ladin.

2000: May--Taliban torture and kill civilians in the Robatak Pass (on the border between Baghlan and Samangan provinces). September--Taloqan finally falls to the Taliban. December--UN Security Council Resolution 1333 is adopted; additional sanctions against the Taliban for their continuing support of terrorism and cultivation of narcotics, etc.

2001: January--Taliban torture and kill numerous civilians (Hazaras) in Yakaolang. March--Despite pleas and requests from various international diplomats, and Islamic scholars, the Taliban destroy ancient historical statues in the Kabul Museum, historical sites in Ghazni, and blow up the giant Bamiyan Buddhas from the 5th century. World expresses outrage and disgust against the Taliban action. April--Ahmad Shah Masood visits Europe to gather support against the Taliban. April--UN accuses Pakistan of not allowing adequate supply of food and medicines to displaced Afghans, at the Jalozai camp, near Peshawar. April--Mullah Rabbani, the Taliban's second-in-command dies of liver cancer. May--Taliban order religious minorities to wear tags identifying themselves as non-Muslims.

September 9--Ahmad Shah Masood is killed by assassins posing as journalists. Two days later (September 11th), suicide attacks on the U.S. kill more than 3,000 people and destroy the two towers of the World Trade Center and part of the Pentagon.

October--Abdul Haq is killed by the Taliban. The United States and UK working with the forces of the United Front (UNIFSA) launch air strikes against the Taliban. (The Americans hold Osama bin Laden directly responsible for the attacks on the World Trade Center, and the Taliban were targeted for protecting him.) November--Taliban lose control of Mazar-i Sharif. December 5--Bonn Agreement. Afghan political groups come together in Bonn, Germany and form an interim government. Hamid Karzai is chosen as Chairman.

2002 - April--Former King Mohammad Zahir returns to Afghanistan (April)--does not claim throne. War continues against Al Qaeda and the Taliban. June--Loya Jirga elects Hamid Karzai as President of a Transitional Government. Karzai picks members of his administration to serve until elections are held in 2004. July-- Haji Abdul Qadir (brother of Abdul Haq) is killed. US air raid in Uruzgan province kills approximately 48 civilians, many of them members of a wedding party

2003: War against Al Qaeda and the Taliban continue--further weakened. August--NATO takes control of security in Kabul.

2004: January--Afghanistan adopts a new constitution. The country is now a republic with three branches of government (Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary). 2004 October/November--Presidential elections are finally held after being delayed twice. Hamid Karzai is declared the winner, with 55.4% of the votes. He is sworn in December. Karzai's strongest challenger, Yunis Qanuni, came in second with 16.3% of the votes. The elections were not without controversy; allegations of fraud and ballot stuffing were brought up by many of the presidential candidates including Yunis Qanuni. Many felt that Hamid Karzai had an unfair advantage over the other candidates as he had access to financial and logistical resources that many of the other candidates did not have. A panel of international experts was set up to investigate the matter. The panel did find evidence of voting irregularities, however, they said that it was not enough to affect the outcome of the elections.

2005: Harsh winter leaves hundreds of people dead. Major advances in the disarmament process announced. March-- Dostum appointed as the Chief of Staff to the Commander of the Armed Forces. Yunis Qanuni announces new political alliance (March 31). April--Karzai welcomes the formation of Qanuni's political alliance.

2006-2009 - ....

 

Articles about Tajikistan's History

Tajik History From: The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed.

Tajikistan: Search for Roots and Rewards By K.N. Pandita

Tajikistan on road to democracy By K.N. Pandita

 

Articles about Iranian Culture

Mehregan Festival (Jashn) By Dr. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak (in Persian)

Nowruz: A New Day for Humanity By Dr. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak